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The macrocycle spans residues AspLys via a side-chain lactam, producing a conformationally constrained ring that distinguishes it structurally from linear -MSH precursors

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Detoxification & Immune Function NAD+ aids enzymes that clear out damaged cells and reduce oxidative stress

This inherent stability means it is somewhat more robust than larger, more complex peptides under handling conditions

These include its comparatively high utilization of oxygen and therefore generation of free radical byproducts, its modest antioxidant defenses, its lipid-rich constitution that provides substrates ready for oxidation, the reducing potential of certain neurotransmitters, and the presence of redox-catalytic metals, like iron and copper (47)